Is Finding True Columbus the Americas?

Many nations acknowledge Columbus first stepped on the continent.
Christopher Columbus became famous as the man who opened the American continent. In 1492 he sailed from Spain to the West Indies. But Columbus's voyage was not a trip for the first time carried out by the Americans. It is probable that before he set foot on land in the west, the Chinese, the Vikings, Ireland, and even the Phenicia have visited the beaches before. Thus arises the question, who exactly had discovered America. Investigations with carbon system found that at least twelve thousand years ago people lived in the Americas already. Now people believe that "outsiders" who first reached the continent is the Mongoloid (like the Mongols; has the characteristics of the Mongols, including the Mongolian race) from eastern Russia. They crossed into Alaska around forty thousand years ago, through a piece of the Bering Strait land bridge, which had long since ceased to exist. They then walked along the Pacific coast into the Central and South America.

A strange discovery, which puts human life in the Americas parallel to the mammoth ever found on the continent; occurred at a farm in Tepexpan, twenty miles north-east of Mexico City in 1950. Farmers Jose Cortes was digging a trench for a water channel when his shovel on something hard. When the land was set aside where he found the carcass of a mammoth that has become fossilized. When fossil was examined by experts paleontology Mexico, was found in a cavity in the ribs end weapons. It appears that the animal had been trapped into the mud and making a helpless prey to a group of hunters armed with spears and stone tools.
Simple tools made of stone and animal bones that may have come from the same culture, people have found in Siberia, Alaska, the Yukon River and Mexico. Thereby further strengthens the theory that people have been scattered into the Americas from Asia.

A question that the Chinese have discovered America in the year 458, was given not long ago by a professor at Peking University Shien Chu-chi. He said, a Buddhist monk, Hoen Shin, once sailed across the North Pacific ocean with four other monks and landed a spot on the coast of Central America, possibly in Mexico. Hoen Shin Fusang country's call, following the name of the mirib plants with plants in the country of China.

Austrian ethnology expert Robert von Heine Geldern step further. He assured the Chinese influence on the development of civilization in America about two hundred years BC. Indeed, the results of sculptures and statues in the ruins of the cities in America was the same as that used in Buddhism. China's oldest manuscript Shan Hai King from year 2250 BC contains a depiction of the canyon now well known as the Grand Canyon.

The possibility of crossing the Pacific Ocean to the even earlier than 2000 BC indicated by the discovery of pottery on the beach Valdivia Ecuador dating from 3000 BC. Pottery items that must have come from Japan, because decorated in the same way as the Jomon pottery area in the country.

Regarding next to the Atlantic coast is said that the monks of Ireland have visited North America around the sixth century. A Latin manuscript of the tenth century Navigatio Sancti Brendani recounts the journey of a character named St. Brendan. In the year 540 St. Brendan together a group of fourteen other monks embarked on a journey to find "the land that had been promised by the holy man". The manuscript contains a lot of the things that are very surprising and thought pious, so for many years considered as a collection of stories. He said, Brendan in his journey has been aided by a whale and led from time to time by the angels who appeared as a bird. But modern scientists found that the trip did happen, though perhaps not all of them led by Brendan.

According to the script Naviatio, Brendan who is an experienced sailor and navigator, is thought to have sailed to "yaaang country has promised to the saints" of Kerry; in a wood framed boat, but covered with the skin of the bull and greased with butter so opaque water. This group is rather to take the direction of the North and then met with a floating crystals. This may mean that they have met with huge icebergs and has sailed around Greenland and into the Davis strait known for floating ice. They passed through a thick foggy area, which is probably the scorched-footed Newfoundland, where the heat flow of the Gulf Stream currents meet with the north pole. This group met with whales and "big-eyed beast, has fangs, belly patches and bearded jaw". Could it be that this meant a mermaid? Before they reached the land of the sun radiates heat like in the spring. The meaning of this last one is Labrador.

Then Brendan and his companions landed on a flat island yagn tropical climate. The island is full of strange herbs, surrounded by water so clear and inhabited by birds are very beautiful and tiny people whose skin is dark. Brendan might have sailed south on the east side of North America without seeing land and arrive at an island in the Bahamas. People dwarf called Brendan probably the Arawak people, which is a native of the Bahamas islands.

Brendan and his group went on his way and find another country, which is full of charm, beautiful like a flower and full of blessing, which is now estimated is Florida area.
The whole story was hard to believe, because of the new written after the event through the centuries. Perhaps the story has a lot of plus-add. But the old story about the heroic people of ancient Scandinavian acknowledge that the Irish people have arrived in the US before.

Trip Vikings (bold Scandinavian pirates raiding coastal towns and ports European rivers between 700 and 900) to North America is now a fact of history that is not in doubt. The ancient Scandinavians traveling through Iceland and Greenland under the leadership of Leif Ericson, and reached the coast of North America in the year 1000. The story of the perilous journey across the sea to the land, the tale is told in ancient Scandinavia. Written in Iceland between 1320 and 1350. People pay less attention to this epic tale, until the time these stories are checked back in 1837. It turns out that the depiction of climate, geography and life in accordance with the original Vinland is located on the coast of New England in America East section. Recent discovery, found eight houses made of stone from the foundation, four houseboats, an iron workshop, holes and equipment for cooking at L'Anse aux Meadows. According to the method of age determination of carbon, are all derived from the Viking era. A strong reason to believe the story of Leif Ericson because most likely he founded the settlement on arrival in North America. These findings, according to Dr. Helge Ingstad of Norway who helped in the effort, said: "This fact has given the first Archaeological evidence of undeniable that the Europeans had come to America centuries before Columbus's voyage in 1492." But there is disagreement whether those the Vikings had been entered into the mainland or confine himself only to perjelajahan coastal areas only.
In 1898 a farmer whose land clearing in Kensington, Minnesota found a use within staggering. When he dug root of the tree, he found a sheet of square stone two and a half feet high and six inches thick. An article consisting of two hundred and twenty letters engraved on the surface and on one side. Allegedly writing was associated with a group that consists of thirty people of Norway and the Goths who are traveling to find something on the ground to the west of Vinland in 1862. In the article it is told about the carnage. In the event that ten members of the group were killed. Many experts have rejected as a hoax goods made in the nineteenth century. Others say it is genuine goods, and if the goods were counterfeit, the forgers must have exceptional knowledge in the fields of history, geology, and the dialect of ancient Scandinavia.

Viking Ship

Some scholars expressed the opinion that in Rwode Island Newport Tower is a building that established the Vikings. The tower round shape and height of twenty-four feet, he is a former church. Other people disagree and say that the building was the work of the Europeans who settled in America in the sixteenth century and seventeenth.
"Vinland Map" is a map of the world which he made by a Swiss monk in 1440, but this statement has been the subject of heated debate for years. Maps obtained Yale University in 1965, it clearly illustrates the location of Vinland in North America. Experts on both sides of the Atlantic have determined the age of the maps with the carbon system and claimed it for the genuine article. But lately some ink from American analysts who study the elements of the map that stated their belief that the map is a fake objects made in the twentieth century.

Meanwhile, a collection of stone megaliths in New Hampshire Telam cause of thought among archaeologists Americans lately; whether it came from the UK, or at least from the Celts. Retuntuhan it is located in a place, which is precisely called Miystery Hill or hill mister; consists of 22 stone cottages, walls, hallways and something that appears as a table to direct sound. Iron stone blocks of local origin giant upright because it is too heavy or stacked horizontally. Beam that one always seems a little more prominent than the others (corbelled Vaulating).

Thousands of man-made items from various periods of time and culture have been found at the site, including a number of inscribed stone. Its language is the language of Ogham, the ancient language of the Irish and Picts (those who in ancient times lived in the northern part of Great Britain). Dr Barry Fell and Harvard University have studied the stones for years and determine the stones came from circa 800 BC to the third century AD.

British historian, Ashe, visited the site in 1960 and said that it might have come from the days when Cronus (a character in Greek mythology, he is the master of the universe, until he was deposed by his son, Zeus). According to Homer, Cronus banished to the land where the sun never sets, which is located in the northwest of the Mediterranean Sea. In the Odyssey, written by Homer, Odysseus (the hero of the story written by Homer, Odyssey, he was a famous king of Ithaca wise and ingenious) sailed to the limits of the world away to the land of Commerian, an area filled with fog and darkness, which some interpreted as Newfoundland.

In an investigation conducted by the serious yagn fiction, Andre Norton, he argued that the results of his reflections Mystery Hill is perhaps the township people Phoenicia and Carthago (Phoenicia is a kingdom in the Mediterranean Sea in the east and Tunisia in North Africa is located near the city of Tunis that now. Carthago is one of the colony founded by people of Phoenicia).

In 335 BC, Aristotle in his list which contains 178 miracle, miracle number 84 calls as a country across the ocean by people Phoenicia strictly kept secret in the interest of trade. People Phoenicia without a doubt is the best sailors in the world in ancient times. They had been sailing around Africa and established trade networks that include places located far from each other, such as Africa, India, Cyprus, and Spain. Based on interpretations of texts of Plato and Diodorus, they also trade with America about the year 1000 BC.

Causes And Prevention Of Milk Allergy

Milk allergy is the most common food allergies in children. In addition to regular cow's milk, goat's milk, sheep and buffalo also can cause allergic reactions. And some children who are allergic to cow's milk are also allergic to soy milk.

Milk allergy usually occur a few minutes to a few hours after you consume milk. Signs and symptoms of milk allergy vary from mild to severe and can occur shortness of breath, vomiting, itchy red spots on the skin and digestive problems. In rare cases, milk allergy can cause anaphylaxis -reaksi severe life-threatening. Avoiding dairy products is the best way to treat allergies. Most children will have a milk allergy by the age of 3 years.

symptom
Milk allergy symptoms vary in each person and occur within a few minutes to several hours after ingesting milk.

Signs and symptoms of milk allergy that occurs immediately after consuming milk, among others:
• rash with itching of the skin
• shortness of breath
• Vomiting

Signs and symptoms of milk allergy who need more time to emerge, among others:
• watery stools, which may contain blood
• Diarrhea
• stomach cramps
• Cough or shortness of breath
• Runny nose
• Watery eyes
• itchy skin rash, often around the mouth
• Colic, in infants

Milk allergy or milk intolerance (inability to digest milk)?
It is important to distinguish between milk allergy to milk or lactose intolerance. Unlike a milk allergy, milk intolerance is not related to the body's immune system. Intolerance to milk causes different symptoms and require different treatment from a milk allergy. Signs and symptoms of milk intolerance include digestive problems, such as bloating or diarrhea after consuming milk or dairy products.

anaphylaxis
In rare cases, milk allergy can cause anaphylaxis, a life-threatening reaction that can narrow down and blocking the airway. If you or your child has a reaction to milk, tell your doctor about it no matter how mild reaction. Inspection can help ensure a milk allergy, so you can take steps to avoid a bad reaction in the future. Anaphylaxis is a medical emergency and requires treatment with injectable epinephrine (adrenaline). Signs and symptoms that began after consuming milk, among others:
• Damage to the respiratory tract, such as swelling of the throat making it difficult to breathe
• Face sweating
• Itching
• Shocked, with a severe drop in blood pressure
Causes & Risk Factors
cause

All milk allergy is caused by the body's immune system malfunctions. Your immune system identifies the milk protein is harmful to your body, triggering the production of immunoglobulin E (IgE) to neutralize the protein (which is considered as allergens). Henceforth, if you come in contact with these proteins, these IgE antibodies will know and send signals to the body's immune system to release histamine and other chemicals. Histamine and other chemicals cause a variety of signs and symptoms. Take on the role of histamine in allergic reactions, among others runny nose, itchy eyes, sore throat, rash, itchy rash, nausea, diarrhea, shortness of breath and anaphylaxis.

There are two types of proteins in cow's milk that can cause an allergic reaction:
• Casein, which is found in milk were frozen solid part
• Whey, which is found in the liquid part of milk that remains after milk frozen

You or your child may have an allergy to milk protein only or both. This protein is not only found in the milk, but also in food. In addition, most of them are having a reaction to cow's milk are also allergic to milk of sheep, goat and buffalo. Those who have an allergy to cow's milk can also have an allergy to soy milk.


Risk factors
Certain factors can bring you to the risk of having a milk allergy, among others:
• Allergy another. Many children with milk allergies also have other allergies. Often milk allergy is the first to appear.
• Atopic dermatitis. Children with this type of skin reactions are more likely to have food allergies.
• Family history. You are at an increased risk of food allergies if one or both of your parents have allergies to food or other types of allergies.
• Age. Milk allergy is more common in children. The more you grow older, your digestion will be more mature and more resistant your body will react to milk.


Prevention

There is no sure way to prevent food allergies occur for the first time. But you can prevent signs and symptoms by avoiding foods that cause your allergies. If you know you or your child is allergic to milk, be sure to avoid dairy products. Know what you or your child to eat and drink. Read the food labels carefully.

Several studies have shown that breast-feeding until the first four months of age babies can help prevent allergic to milk. In children who have had an allergy to milk, breast-feeding and the use of hypoallergenic formulas (formulas made from enzymes to destroy the milk protein) can prevent allergic reactions.

Myths and Archaeological findings Pyramid

Giant pyramids of Egypt is one of the seven wonders of the world today, has always been regarded as mysterious and majestic buildings by people. However, even though many years have passed, after the scholars and researchers using large number of tools are accurate and sophisticated, is still unknown, who actually has made a giant building high and majestic it? And derived from human intelligence is unimaginable performance in the building?

And what is its purpose to make the building? And in that time it has usability how or what it means? Puzzles that keep spinning in the minds of all people for thousands of years, from beginning to end is a mystery that can not be explained.

Although historians say it was founded in 2000 more SM, but this opinion can not even explain the concerns that are initiated by a large number of research findings.

Since the 6th century BC, Egypt was a runaway government Posh, who lost his seat after standing for more than 2,000 years, receives power from outside the kingdom of Greece, Rome, the Islamic government and the power of other nations.

While the large number of famous works of ancient days destroyed, character and religious beliefs of the Egyptians themselves were gradually replaced by other cultures, so that the ancient Egyptian culture to be receding and destroyed, later generations also lost a large number of relics that can decipher clues left by the predecessor.

In 450 BC, after a Greek historian around and fall in Egypt, whose writings: Cheops (Khufu Greek characters), he said, were destroyed after 50 years. Within certain limits the Greek historian is using the phrase "supposedly said", meaning that the truth needs to be shown again. However, since it is the opinion of the Greek historian even be quoted later generations as important evidence that the pyramid was built in the 4th dynasty.

During this time, historians assume that the pyramid is the tomb of the king. Thus, so talk about the pyramid, which in the minds of the unnoticed is jewelry and items that glitters. And, in the year 820 AD, when the governor-general of Islamic Cairo Caliph Al-Ma'mun led the team, was first dug a secret passageway and into the pyramid, and when the patient does not get into the room, the view looks even make it extremely disappointed.

Not only is no one thing that is usually buried with the corpse, like a pearl, and sculpture, even a piece of pottery fragments were not there, there was only an empty stone coffin that there is no cap. While the wall was only the empty net field, nor is there the slightest inscriptions.

Conclusion historians on performance first entered this pyramid is "experiencing robbery objects in the tomb". However, research results clearly indicate, the possibility of grave robbers get into the pyramid through the other road is very small. Under normal conditions, it is also not possible grave robbers can steal without leaving a trace, and more is no longer possible to delete the entire inscription Pharaoh depicted on the wall.

Compared with other tombs were generally filled jewelry treasures abound, a giant pyramid built to commemorate the greatness of Pharaoh be very different.

Moreover, in the note "Inventory Stela" stored in the Cairo museum, alluded that the pyramid has been there since the beginning before Khufu continue throne. However, because of the record on the hard stone inscriptions challenging the traditional view, there is a problem between research experts and ways of writing the book, taken together, strongly criticized the research.

Actually, within the limitations of historical record that can be obtained, if for a particular view and then set aside some historical evidence, has unwittingly hinder our objective in view of the position of actual history.

The Outstanding Building Techniques

In Egypt, there are so many pyramids of various sizes, the default is not only much smaller, its structure is too coarse. Among the pyramids were built in the reign of the 5th and 6th, many of which have been damaged or destroyed, become a heap of ruins, such as the pyramid of King Menkaure as shown.

Then, the great pyramids were built at an earlier time, in a powerful earthquake in the 13th century, where some stone walled outer side was destroyed, but due in part supported by the walls of the buffer, so that all the structures remain very strong.

Therefore, when building a giant pyramid, not just simply organize 3 million miles into a cone shape, if there are flaws in the design of this special construction, partially damaged, it can lead to entirely collapse because the weight is supported.

Anyway, how is the project of building a giant pyramid was done, remains a topic that makes dizziness scholars. In addition to considering the large number of stone and the energy required, the most important factor is the high point of the pyramid should be in the field of basic right above the midpoint of the 4 corners.

Because if all 4 corners sideways and slightly distorted, then when closing the cusp may not converge at one point, this means building project failed. Therefore, is a very important point, how to put a number of 2.3 million -2.6 million pieces of large stone that every stone weighs 2.5 tons from ground level to a height of more than one hundred meters in space and installed from beginning to end on right position.

As the author Graham Hancock in his essay "Fingerprint of God": In place staggered, on the one hand must balance the body, and the other side must move one at a stone weighing at least 2-fold into a small car above, transported to the right place, and leads right into place, whatever you have in mind workers carrier stones.

Although modern science has been estimated in various ways and allow the energy to build, but if they are considered real conditions, we find that these people must have the ability or physical strength superhuman, can only solve this gigantic project and ensure the accuracy and precision accuracy.

Against this, Jean Francois Champollion who gets the title as the "Father of Modern Knowledge of Ancient Egypt" estimates that the person who set up the pyramid unlike humans now, at least not in the "thinking they have a high body 100 feet tall like giants". He argued, in terms of making a pyramid, it is the result of the work of giants.

Similarly, Master Li Hongzhi in his lecture at the 2002 North American perimeter also never mentioned that possibility. "Man can not understand how the pyramids were built. Stone is so great how people transported?

Some of the giants whose height is five meters deliver something, it is with humans now move a large rock is the same. To build the pyramid, five meters tall man just like we are now building a large building. "

Thought so inevitably makes us imagine, that giant pyramid and a large number of giant ancient stone buildings that are found in various parts of the world have the same doubt bring to everyone: large and majestic high, formed by using a very large stone structure, even drafting very perfect.

Like for example, in the northern suburbs of Mexico there Sacsahuaman Castle compiled with giant stones weighing more than 100 tons, of which there is a giant rock that reaches 28 feet, estimated to weigh up to 360 tons (equivalent to 500 family cars).

And on the plains of southwestern England there are giant rock formation, surrounded by dozens of giant rocks and formed a large circle, in between some rocks reach 6 feet in height. Actually, that is how a group of men were they? Why always use the stone giant, and not using stone size in the range of our ability to build?

Sphinx, lion-faced man who is also an important object of research scientists, 20 meters high, 73 meters in overall length, is considered established by the government of Pharaoh Khafre the 4th. However, with the former being eaten by rust (erosion) on the surface of the body of the Sphinx, scientists estimate that the time of manufacture may be earlier, at least 10 thousand years ago before Christ.

A scholar John Washeth also argues: That giant pyramids and the Sphinx nearby neighbors with building the kingdom of the other 4 completely different, it was built during the more ancient than the government 4th time. In his book "Snakes Space", John Washeth forward: the development of Egyptian culture may not come from the Nile basin, but comes from a culture that earlier and more intense than the ancient Egyptians thousands of years ancient, cultural heritage bequeathed by our unknown .

This, in addition to building technologically reasons outlined earlier, and those found on the Sphinx severely affected has also proved this point.

Walle Rubich mathematician in "The Holy Science" shows: in 11,000 BC, the Egyptians must have had a great culture. At that time the Sphinx was there, because the lion-faced human body, in addition to the head, obviously there are former erosion. Estimates are in a terrible flood in 11,000 BC and heavy rain that alternates causing erosion scars.

Other estimates of erosion on the Sphinx is rain and wind. Washeth rule out the possibility of rain water, because during the past 9,000 years in highland peninsula, rain water is not always enough, and must trace back to a new year 10000 BC there were such bad weather.

Washeth also mengesam-pingkan possibility of erosion by wind, because other limestone building on the 4th time the government even did not experience the same erosion. Elephant-shaped writing and inscriptions left by the time of the ancient kingdom was no piece of rock that suffered severe erosion as happened in the Sphinx.

Boston University professor and expert in terms of rock erosion Robert S. also agree with the view Washeth also showed that: The Sphinx suffered erosion, there are some parts that depth reaches 2 meters, so that meander if viewed from the outside corner, like a wave, obviously an ex after a gust of wind and great for thousands of years.

Washeth and Robert S. also shows: Technology of the ancient Egyptians may not be able to carve out such a massive scale on a giant rock, art products technically complicated.

If the observed overall, we can logically conclude, that in ancient times, in the land of Egypt, there was once a highly developed culture, but because of the shifting plates of the earth's land submerged rocks in the ocean, and a very ancient culture at that time eventually eliminated, leaving the pyramids and Sphinx with a perfect building technology.

In the long term on the ocean floor, a giant pyramid and Sphinx suffered water immersion and erosion in a long time, is the direct cause which resulted in severe erosion on the Sphinx.

Because building materials giant pyramid peninsula is the result of human technology that does not know now, the ability to withstand water erosion far beyond natural stone, while the Sphinx was carved with whole natural stone, this may be the real cause of the giant pyramids eroded by sea water which is not visible from the surface.

Caption: Sphinx close neighbor of the giant pyramid seems to be very ancient. Scientists confirm that from the body, such as irrigation channels and water eroded, he had experienced some damp weather, therefore estimates that it is extremely likely to have been before 10 thousand years ago.

Gorbachev's perestroika policy in

Pretroika born because the faster development of the world, especially in the field of tehknologi and economics, which is no longer able to be followed by a social system of political autocracy and economic centralization of the Soviet Union. For nearly 70 years of autocracy sentralisasidaan pattern runs in the Soviet Union so as to make the Soviet Union lagged by at compare other capitalist countries. The advantages of the Soviet Union only in the military and national defense and aerospace tehknologi, but walkin in the field in direct contact with people's lives, such as socio-economic and political. As a result, the Soviet Union experienced a prolonged economic crisis.


Given the circumstances are such that the Soviet Union, the Gorbachev reforms in the spirit of issuing policies to change the old system, known as prestroika, Glasnost and Demokrtisasi. Prestroika aims to develop a new model of socialism which replaces the old economic models sisitem imposed by Stalin, known as the economic model of Stalin. Stalin's economic model as a command economic system and not rely on market forces as the deciding factor. As a result of Stalin's economic model raises the incidence of poverty among workers and keidakadian because in practice the use of force, seized the entire production of farmers without compensation.
There are 5 basic principles Prestroika, among others:
a). Foreclosure centralized system aimed at rationalization
Gorbachev believes that the role and dominance of the State in the agricultural sector should be reduced in this case is penggnaan Gosplan by way of structural changes and new apart fill the bureau of planning Economies (Gosplan), Ministry of foreign trade, Finance, Petroleum, perkebangan and industry.
b). Increased agricultural production by means of mechanisms and expansion
to cope with crop failure in 1984, the Gorbachev using kobinasi mechanism accompanied by perluaan land. Some fertile areas in the former Soviet region as Abasha district in Georgia and in the area of 1300 hectares Andigon District opened to agriculture.
c). Increasing labor productivity

on 16 Noodle, 1985, Gorbachev issued a decree ordering the massive unemployment the number of places allowed to sell alcoholic beverages. Authoring-liquor beverages during working hours, while sales in the shortening and increased the age limit above 21 years old are allowed to purchase and consume alcoholic beverages. Gorbachev's efforts to obtain the support of industry managers are aware of the consequences of alcoholism that affect work productivity. Because alcoholism until the citizen class workers.
d). Tehknologi infrastructure repair industry
namely through the application of new management and with sistaem modernization then legalized in the central committee plenary in June 1987 include:

• Granting freedom in processing companies to implement the calculation of production costs and income, as well as payroll system in accordance with the work and the dynamics of labor relations.
• Changing economic siste centralized and decentralized.
• Pricing, costs and credit seta tenologi usage and quality measures ditenjtukan by a sort of free-market mechanisms.
• Replace the centralized command system to menajeman democratic system, creating a mechanism that reinforces individual potesi.

Increased production, industrial growth rate and quality of consumer goods.

This work is done by creating a new organizational structure that is capable of covering the use of science and discovery tehknologi more directly in the production process to achieve international quality standards. And the use of science and technology invention is directed to the areas that are directly related to the needs of industry and society that peranian. In addition, Gorbachev also raise the salaries of scientists concerned and raise investment funds budget untukperkembangan civilian science and technology sector.

Economic reforms conducted by Gorbachev
Sector Industry of the Soviet Union has characteristics, namely: Leih centered on the target outcome or Val, inefficient or saving on raw materials, everything from and to peerintah in other words using state budget. The manager is trying to meet the targets of the gross profit, they do not think about the cost of production because of all the good ditanggungpemerintah mauoun profit and loss. Conditions such as these cause the workers are not compelled to work maximal and kreati or innovative, and not compelled to conserve raw materials. In fact, innovation tehkologi not occur because of changes tehknologi it does not happen because the system command. Innovator-innovators are not rewarded for innovation are hampering the achievement of Val (target gross) and they do not like to peletiha-pelaaatiahan human and machine-mesin.Sebelumnya replacement, the company can only produce primarily to the target plan with raw materials distributed to the tujan. In this reofrmasi industry company has the right to earn a profit, buy and sell raw materials dala wholesale price and make a contract with the potential buyer. So perussahaan-Soviet company will operate with the basic contract demand is determined not to meet the target gross (Val) in the case of the Soviet Union era sebelumnya.Pemerintah more concerned with military industries and sectors angkas outside so that the pad is very advanced Soviet Union to be able to compete with the United States .
Agricultural sector
Gorbchev had a suggestion untu rent fields to farm families for a period of 50 years. The rental system can increase the flexibility of options such as the type of crop, thus allowing family farmers to cope with the market demand better than when menajeman collective farms mentukan what should be produced by the farmer. So that farmers only pay the rent, and can memuuskan in production and investment alone.
Cooperatives Sector Cooperative Act was passed providing the type of market environment for channeling resources into activities koprasi. Equipment, labor services and the purchase of a bank-financed business premises if necessary and collectively owned. This sector can apply force to the economic reforms kerja.Tantangan one of which comes from one of the workers who are at risk of losing jobs and are generally determined by the people who are not biased to enjoy improvements in their living standards.


Success Rate of Economic Reform
When conducted by Gorbachev Mikhail Gorbachev announced prestroika in July 1987, he described it as a radical overhaul of economic management. That recipe soviet welfare of the people who have decades stranded under the dictatorship of the proletariat. Besides Gorbachev calls for acceleration, namely an overhaul must go hand in hand with economic growth so that there is no reason to sacrifice the welfare of the people for personal or group interests.
In order reshuffle not run recklessly, Gorbachev established a committee of economic overhaul led by Leonid I Albakin. This institution is responsible jawb on launching and monitoring every development and implementation prestroika.

But unfortunately somewhat reality does not match the dream, because it turns out the people of the Soviet people suffer even more. This is evident from the dilakuakan revenue collection by the National Public Opinion Research Center (PROPN) in November 1989, as many as 52% of respondents chose the Soviet economic situation worsened for 2 or 3 years prestroika running. According to 86% of respondents rate the supali food and consumer goods increasingly scarce. While in The Washington Post, a Swedish judge that the economy of the Soviet ekonimi tend to deteriorate.
There are many things that cause prestroika hampered, among others:

a) At least supply of food and fuel
b) The high harag consumer goods and not affordable by the people who earn only about US $ 300
c) The existence of organized crime and the shadow economy (black market)
d) The lack becusan officials, corruption rampant
e) There will be a coup carried out by groups that do not like Gorbachev.

But do not blame Gorbachev of the Soviet people, they blame the government bureaucracy that impede the course of economic development.
To overcome obstacles and improve the economy, Gorbachev remove the price control system and introducing free market system. However, it resulted in the prices of goods soared so soon reinstated price control system. It shows that Gorbachev difficulties to cope with the economic situation in the Soviet Union. It can be said prestroika running slow and not in accordance with planned. This is because Russian society can not accept reforms, still attached to the old bureaucratic and old habits would be a totalitarian system that for years delete the Soviet people should be subject to the political system. The workers are familiar with the nature of egalitarianism and suspicious of reforms designed and officials prefer centralism.

HIROSHIMA AND NAGASAKI HISTORY

Since 1945 there is chaos the world with the war. Among them is the Pacific war that caused many casualties among the Americans and the Japanese, the Americans were victims of about 899,000 inhabitants and the Japanese side as much as 1,100,000 inhabitants. In America at that time a change which originally held by President FD Roosevelt was replaced by S. Thurman. President Roosevelt was replaced because he died of a brain hemorrhage.

Battle of Okinawa is because Japan attacked the US Navy around the territorial waters of Japan. Battle casualty of the Americans themselves as much as 79,000 inhabitants, Japan as much as 131,000 civilian lives and as many as 150,000 lives. As a result of the Okinawa war, Americans create weapons of mass destruction, namely three Uranium bombs. But the new president of the United States, namely S. Thurman still hesitant to give authorization to use the powerful weapon by reason of fear of violating the Geneva agreements. The president opinion contrary to the opinion of American military officials who agreed with the use of the bomb, the reason may terminate perrang which has lasted a very long time.

On May 19, 1945 Germany was defeated by the Americans in Europe, with this victory makes the United States seeks to intimidate Japan to immediately surrender unconditionally. It does not get a response from the Japanese side to make America upset and launch an attack against Japan continuously. One is the destruction of Tokyo, the destruction seen by Emperor Hirohito. The number of casualties and damage caused by the American attack made him want war ends soon.

In the US, the government collects the Scientist and Senior Officials state to discuss whether the bomb should be used or not. Finally, the use of weapons of mass destruction is enacted with the purpose of attacking military installations and residential areas of Japan. Once approved a new question arises "Where is the location of the bomb to be dropped?" And the city of Hiroshima was chosen because the city is considered important by the Japanese city.

American scientists are making three bomb, codenamed "Manhattan Project" on proposals Mayjend. Manhattan. Before being used to destroy the Japanese, the bomb tested and the result was more devastating and unexpected. With the results of these trials Russia tried to persuade Japan to make peace with the Americans. But the Japanese are not willing to make peace with the Americans, the Japanese statement made Americans more seriously to prepare an attack against Japan.

On August 6, 1945 weapons of mass destruction is dropped on the city of Hiroshima, and make the city fall apart. The success is regarded by the Americans as the end of the war. Having trouble Hiroshima, Russia stole the opportunity to attack the Japanese-controlled Manchuria and the attack managed to fall into the hands of Russian Manchuria. Peghancuran city of Hiroshima by the Americans did not make Japan surrender. Finally, the Americans dropped the weapons of mass destruction to Japan's final, this time dropped on the city of Nagasaki on August 9, 1945.

In the second bombing does not make Japan surrender officials, especially General Anamy. They want to continue to fight the Americans on the grounds it is the last bomb owned by Americans. But the reason it was rejected by the General of the emperor, the emperor had his own reasons. Emperor fear of falling victim more banyal longer than the civilians. Japan finally surrendered to the Allies. Feels like a failure and could not give a victory for Japan, General Anamy rather die with honor than to be a prisoner of the enemy. Finally, General Anamy commit suicide Japanese tradition that Haragiri.

Rabies

Rabies is a deadly virus that is spread from the saliva of infected animals. The rabies virus is usually transmitted through the bite. Once someone shows signs and symptoms of rabies, the condition is usually fatal approach. For this reason, a vaccine to stop the rabies virus given to those who have a risk of rabies.

symptom
Rabies does not cause signs or symptoms until the late stages of the disease, often only a few days before death. Signs and symptoms include:
• Fever
• Headache
• Easy to anger
• Restlessness
• Confusion
• Difficulty swallowing
• Excessive Saliva
• Fear of the water (hydrophobia) due to difficulty in swallowing
• Hallucinating
• Insomnia
• Paralysis partially
Causes & Risk Factors

cause

Rabies infection caused by rabies virus. The virus is transmitted through the saliva of an infected animal. Infected animals can transmit the virus by biting other animals or humans. The virus is also transmitted through saliva where it can hit an open wound or mucous membranes, such as the eyes or mouth.

Animals that can transmit rabies virus include:
• Cats
• Cattle
• Dogs
• Weasel
• Goats
• Rabbits
• Kelalawar
• Beavers
• Change
• Apes
• Raccoons


risk factors

Factors that can increase your rabid among others:
• travel to a place where rabies is common, such as Africa and Southeast Asia.
• Activities that make you come into contact with wild animals that may be infected with rabies.
• Working in a laboratory with the rabies virus
• Wounded in the head or neck that can make it easier rabies virus reaches the brain


prevention

You can reduce the risk of contact with animals that may have rabies by:
• vaccinate your pet.
• Keep your pet remains protected.
• Report if there are wild animals in your area to local authorities.
• Do not approach wild animals.
• Make sure your home is closed and there are no loopholes for wild animals can get into your home.
• Consider rabies vaccine when you travel.

Influenza

Influenza is a viral infection that attacks the respiratory system, including the nose, throat, bronchial and lung.

If you get the flu, you will feel unwell for a few days, but you probably will not experience complications with other diseases or you may require hospitalization. If you have a weak immune system or chronic disease, the flu can be fatal. For those with a high risk of flu, then the first line of defense is the injection / annual flu vaccine.
symptom
Actually, flu-like common cold with a runny nose, sneezing and throat swelling. But colds usually develop slowly, and flu came suddenly. Although colds can be a nuisance, you are usually more concerned about the flu.

Some of the signs and symptoms that are common in the flu:
• Fever over 38 Celsius in adults, and often up to 39.5 Celsius to 40.5 Celsius in children.
• Chills and sweating.
• Dry cough.
• Muscle pain, especially on the back, arms and legs
• Fatigue and weakness
• Nasal congestion
• Loss of appetite
• Diarrhoea and vomiting in children

Causes & Risk Factors
cause

Flu viruses are spread through the air when an infected person coughs, sneezes or talk. You can inhale the virus directly, or through an object such as a phone or computer keyboard, and then deliver them to the eyes, nose or mouth.

Flu is caused by three types of viruses - influenza A, B, and C. Type A causes deadly flu pandemic (an epidemic in the hemisphere) that strikes every 10 to 40 years. Type B causes a pandemic with a smaller scale. Type A or B can cause the flu every winter circulation. Type C is never associated with a large epidemic.

Type C is quite stable, but type A and B are constantly changing and raises new concerns for the community on a regular basis. Once you have the flu, the antibodies will suppress the cause, but it will not protect you from the virus that has mutated. That's why doctors recommend a flu shot every year.
 
risk factors
     
Increased risk of flu or complicating if you:

• Infants or children
• Aged over 50 years
• Have a chronic illness, such as diabetes or janung disease, kidney disease, or lung.
• Having a weak immune system, such as HIV-AIDS.
• Pregnant when will the flu season
• Residents in care centers.
• Working in the care center.
• Regularly perform in close contact with infants or children.

Children who use aspirin for a long time also can increase with greater risk. The flu vaccine is safe for children aged 6 months or more. If your child is not at risk but stay with people who have these risks, you still have to give the vaccine to your child. The way your child will reduce the risk of infection. More and more people are immunized, fewer flu will spread in a community.

prevention

• Use the regular flu shot every year. The right time for vaccination is currently before the peak of flu season. It took two weeks for the body to build up the body's immune system from the vaccine. Ask your doctor right time.

Keep in mind that the flu vaccine will not eliminate the risk of catching a cold, especially in adults. But this vaccine can reduce the risk of catching a cold. Based on the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), if the current flu vaccine and circulating influenza outbreak close, the flu vaccine will be effective between 70% to 90% to protect.

It is less effectiveness in adults. Health experts recommend vaccination in people over 50 years since the vaccine will reduce the risk of flu complications, hospital care and death.

• Cusi hand. Hand washing is the best way to prevent infection with the common cold. Rub your palms at least 15 seconds, Soap correctly and close the faucet using a tissue. Or use gel alcohol-based hand sanitizers at least 60 percent alcohol content.

• Eat properly and sleep regularly. Poor diet and lack of sleep weakens your immunity and cause you more vulnerable to infection. A balanced diet with fresh fruits and vegetables, wheat or rice, and foods containing protein is the best for many people. Adequate sleep and regularly also need to immune system health. In general, adults are very good night's sleep for 7 to 8 hours. Children and adolescents need to sleep the night of 9 to 10 hours.

• Exercise regularly. Cardiovascular train regularly - walking, cycling, aerobics - boost your immune system. Sports can not prevent infection, but if you have the flu, you will be less likely to develop a severe impact and recover more quickly than those who do not fit.

• Avoid crowds when flu season. Flu spreads easily wherever people gather many - in care centers, schools, offices, auditoriums and public transportation. Avoid crowds during the flu season will reduce your chance of flu.

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Malaria

Malaria is an infectious disease caused by a parasite that is transmitted by mosquitoes. Mosquitoes are numerous in areas with temperate climates, especially in Africa and India.

symptom
Initial infection of malaria generally have the following signs and symptoms:

• Chills
• High fever
• Excessive Sweating with decreasing temperature
• Experiencing discomfort and uneasiness (malaise)

Other signs and symptoms include:

• Headache
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Diarrhea

Causes & Risk Factors
cause

Parasite that causes malaria called Plasmodium. There are 170 species of plasmodium, but only four that causes malaria in humans:

• P. falciparum, a type that is widely available in Africa and cause severe symptoms.
• P. vivax, the kind that are common in tropical areas of Asia.
• P. malariae, is widely available in Africa and can remain in the bloodstream without causing any symptoms for several years.
• P. ovale, numerous in western Africa.

The process of transmission
Plasmodium parasite transmission to humans is through the female anopheles mosquito. When a mosquito bites a person infected with malaria, the mosquito sucking parasite called gametocytes. The finish parasite growth cycle in the mosquito's body and then spread to the salivary glands of the mosquito. At the moment you bite, mosquito parasite is injected into your blood stream. To the liver and then multiply themselves.

Other forms of transmission may occur can be spread from a pregnant woman to the fetus. Malaria can also be transmitted through blood transfusions.

risk factors

Those who have low immunity against malaria has a greater risk. This is in contrast to those living in endemic areas because it has immunity against malaria.

They are at risk of malaria, among others:
• Children and babies
• Travelers who come from areas with no malaria
• A pregnant woman and her fetus

prevention

There is no effective vaccine against malaria. In endemic countries to prevent it is to keep mosquitoes from humans to wear insect repellent or mosquito nets.

Lung cancer

Lung cancer is a type of cancer that occurs in the lungs. This type of cancer can cause death.
People who smoke have an increased risk of developing lung cancer. The risk of lung cancer increases with time and the number of cigarettes that had been spent.

symptom
Lung cancer usually does not cause signs and symptoms in the early stages. Signs and symptoms of lung cancer occurs only Katika condition has worsened.

Signs and symptoms of lung cancer include:
• A cough that does not go away
• Changes in chronic cough
• Exit of blood when coughing
• Shortness of breath
• Pain in the chest
• Shortness like whistling
• Hoarseness
• Loss of weight
• Pain in the bones
• Headache

Causes & Risk Factors
cause

Cigarette smoke is a major cause in the majority of cases of lung cancer. But without being exposed to cigarette smoke also can someone lung cancer. In such cases it is not clear what causes lung cancer.

Doctors believe that the smoke causes damage to cells in the lungs. Over time, this damage also triggers cell does not work as it should then have mutations causing cancer.

Doctors divide lung cancer into two main types based on the appearance of lung cancer cells from microscope. Two types of lung cancer include:

• Small cell lung cancer. Is a cancer that occurs in particular almost all heavy smokers.
• Non-small cell lung cancer. Is a general term for several types of cancer, including squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma and large cell carcinoma.

risk factors

Some factors that increase the risk of lung cancer include:
• Active Smoker
• Passive smoking
• Exposure to high levels of radon gas (Radon is a gas that is used for treatment in some hospitals by pumping it from a radium source and give him the seal on the "tube-minute", the so-called "seed" or "needle", to be given to the patient. Radon typically found the hot springs)
• Exposure to asbestos particles and other chemicals
• Family history of lung cancer
• Excessive alcohol consumption
• lung disease specific (eg chronic obstructive pulmonary disease)

prevention

There is no sure way to prevent lung cancer, but you can reduce the risk if you:
• Do not smoke
• Stop smoking
• Avoid cigarette smoke
• Use protective while working
• Eat nutritious foods, especially fruits and vegetables
• Avoid alcohol
• Exercising

Fever

Fever is usually a sign something has gone wrong in your body. For adults, the fever will feel uncomfortable, but usually harmless despite reaching a temperature of 39.4 Celsius or higher. For children and adolescents fever may indicate a serious infection. The high temperature of the body does not indicate how severe the infection that you experienced. Mild infections may cause high fever and severe infections can also cause a mild fever.

Usually the fever will go away with time. Some nonprescription can reduce fever. But sometimes it's better if left for fever also play a role in helping the body fight infections.
symptom
Some symptoms of fever, among others:
• Sweating
• Shaking
• Headache
• Muscle pain
• Loss of appetite
• Dehydration
• Weak

High fever of 39.4 Celsius and 41.1 Celsius can cause:
• Hallucinations
• Confusion
• Irritability
• Guffaw

Causes & Risk Factors
cause

Daily temperature Temperature can affect your body temperature. In addition, the menstrual cycle and heavy exercise can also affect your body temperature.

Here's how the body temperature occurs:
• Body temperature is regulated by the hypothalamus - an area at the base of the brain that serves as your body's thermostat.
• The temperature of the body become unbalanced due to the heat produced by the body's tissues - especially the liver and muscles - and the loss of body temperature.
• When you are sick normal body temperature will be set higher as the blood flow to the skin to reduce heat loss
• When the fever started your body will adjust the temperature. This causes you to shiver or tremble until the blood in the hypothalamus managed to adjust the temperature
• When the body temperature drops to normal you can sweat as the body releases excessive temperatures
• If you are very old, very young or alcoholics, then the body's ability to regulate fever can be reduced

Fever usually indicates your body responds to bacterial or viral infection. Other causes may include:
• Exposure to heat
• Burned sun
• certain inflammatory conditions
• Malignant tumors or some form of kidney cancer
• Some medications, such as antibiotics and drugs used for high blood pressure or seizures
• Immunizations

prevention

The best way to prevent infection is to reduce fever in a simple way that is effective, ie washing hands. In addition is shut your mouth when coughing and nose when sneezing.

Epilepsy

Epilepsy is a chronic neurological disease that causes seizures periodically. The disease is caused by abnormal brain cell activity. Symptoms vary seizures arise. Some people with epilepsy when seizures have an empty view. Mild seizures requires treatment, because it can be dangerous in case when doing activities such as driving or swimming. Treatment - including medical treatment and sometimes surgery - usually managed to eliminate or reduce the frequency and intensity of seizures. Many children with epilepsy can overcome this condition with age.

symptom
Because epilepsy is caused by abnormal brain cell activity, seizures can affect your brain coordination process. Convulsions can produce:

• Confusion temporary
• uncontrollable jerking movements of the hands and feet
• Loss of consciousness in total

Differences symptoms occur depending on the type of seizures. In many cases, people with epilepsy will tend to have the type of seizure that is the same every time, so it will be the same symptoms that occur from incident to incident. Doctors classify seizures are partial or general, based on how abnormal brain activity begins. In some cases, seizures can begin partially and then became general.

- Partial Seizures (partially)
When seizures arise as a result of abnormal brain activity in one part of the brain, scientists call partial seizures or partial. Convulsions this type consists of two categories.

• Simple partial seizures (simple partial seizures). Convulsions have not resulted in loss of consciousness. Convulsions may be changing emotions or changing the way look, smell, feel, taste, or hear. Convulsions may also produce buffeting parts of the body by accident, such as the hands or feet, and sensory symptoms spontaneously as tingling, vertigo and flashes to light.
• Complex partial seizures (complex partial seizure). Convulsions have resulted in a change of consciousness, it is because you lose vigilance for some time.

- Convulsions general
Seizures that involve all parts of the brain called the seizures general. Four types of seizures general are:
• Absence seizures (also called petit mal). Convulsions have characterized by body movements are smooth and unobtrusive, and can cause loss of consciousness briefly.
• Myoclonic seizures. These seizures usually cause buffeting or sudden twitch of the hands and feet.
• atonic seizures. Also known as drop attacks, seizures have led to the loss of harmony with the muscles and the sudden collapse and fall.
Tonic-clonic seizures • (also called grand mal). Convulsions which has an intensity that most often occur. Having characteristics with loss of consciousness, stiff and shaking, and loss of bladder control.
Causes & Risk Factors
cause

• Genetic influence. Some types of epilepsy decreased in the family, make it like there was a relationship with genetic.

• Trauma to the head. Car accident or other injury can cause epilepsy.

• medical disease. Stroke or heart attack which resulted in damage to the brain can also cause epilepsy. Stroke is the most important cause in the incidence of epilepsy to people over the age of 65 years.

• Dementia. Cause of epilepsy in the elderly.

• Injuries before birth. Fetal brain vulnerable to damage due to infection in the mother, lack of nutrients or oxygen deficiency. This can lead to cerebral palsy in children. Twenty percent of seizures in children associated with cerebral palsy or abnormal neurological.

• The development of the disease. Epilepsy can be associated with the development of other diseases, such as autism and Down syndrome.
  
risk factors
      
Factors that may increase the risk of epilepsy are:

• Age. Epilepsy usually occurs in the early ages of the children and after age 65 years, but the same condition can occur at any age.

• Gender. More men than women at risk of developing epilepsy.

• Note the family. If you have a record of epilepsy in the family, you may have an increased risk of having a seizure.

• Head injury. These injuries are responsible for many cases of epilepsy. You can reduce the risk by always using a seat belt when driving and using a helmet when riding a bike, skiing, biking or doing other activities at risk of head injury.

• Stroke and other vascular diseases. It can cause damage to the brain that trigger epilepsy. You can take several steps to reduce the risk of these diseases, including is the limit for consuming alcohol and avoid smoking, eating a healthy diet and exercise constantly.

• Infection of the brain. Infections such as meningitis, causing inflammation of the brain or spinal cord and cause an increased risk of epilepsy.

• Convulsions prolonged by the time the children. High fever when the children for a long time sometimes associated with convulsions for a long time and epilepsy at the time later. Especially for those with a family history records with epilepsy.

WILDERNESS in Egypt turned out OCEAN

"Patch of desert in Egypt that was once the ocean to keep a secret about one of the transformation of the most remarkable evolution."
Thirty-seven million years ago in prehistoric Tethys Ocean, an animal that moves a 15-meter long flexible with mencangah jaw, and sawtooth die and sink to the ocean floor. Over thousands of millennia blanket of sediment built up over the bones of the giant. Then receding sea and seabed turned into desert, the wind began to reap sandstone and stone chips on top of the bones. Slowly the world is changing. The shift in the Earth's crust pushed India into Asia, urging rising Himalayas. In Africa, the first human ancestors straighten up and walk on their hind legs. The pharaohs built the pyramids. Roman Empire rose and fell. In all the while the wind continued its patient excavation. Then one day Philip Gingerich showed up to finish the job.

When the sunset one evening last November, Gingerich, a vertebrate paleontologist at the University of Michigan lay down beside backbone Basilosaurus creature called it. We were in one location in Wadi Hitan, an Egyptian desert. Fossil shark teeth, sea urchin spines, and giant catfish bones scattered on the sand around Gingerich. "I spent so much time in between these sea creatures so soon I'm living in their world," he said as he poked the vertebrae of logs with a brush. "When I look at this desert, I see the ocean." Gingerich was searching for an important part of the anatomy of the creature, and he pressed for time. The light was failing, he had to return to camp before his colleagues worry. Wadi Hitan is a beautiful place, but unforgiving. In addition to the bones of prehistoric sea monsters, Gingerich found the remains of the unfortunate man.
He moved toward the tail bone, check each vertebra with the handle of a brush. Then, he stopped and put down the brush. "Here it is the treasure," he said. While cleaning the sand with her fingers carefully, Gingerich reveal slender piece of bone, length of no more than 20 centimeters. "It's not often we get to see the foot whale," he said, lifting the bone reverently in both hands.
Basilosaurus clearly a whale, but the pope who had two small rear legs sticking out of the pelvis, legs, each for a three-year daughter. Winsome little foot-perfectly formed yet useless, at least for a walk is an important clue to understanding how modern whales that have so successfully adapted swimming machines, descended from land mammals that ever walked on four legs. Gingerich has devoted much of his career to explain the metamorphosis which arguably is the largest in the world of animals. On the way, he has shown that whales, once celebrated by creationists as the best evidence against evolution, may constitute evidence of the evolution of the most elegant.
"Complete specimens like that Basilosaurus Rosetta stone," Gingerich said as we drove back to the field camp. "Complete specimens can reveal how the animal lived much more than fragmentary remains."
Wadi Hitan which literally means "valley of whales" turned out to be very rich in the "pearl" of the sort. Over the past 27 years, Gingerich and his colleagues have found the remains of more than 1,000 whale tail in place and many more are waiting to be discovered. When he returned to the camp, we met with several members of Gingerich's team had just returned from their field work. Shortly thereafter, we discuss the results of their work with a dinner of roasted goat meat, ful madammas (Dieng mashed beans), and rolled bread. Sameh Mohammed, head of the conservation area of Wadi Hitan supervisors have for whales farther eastward and reported several new bone piles-fresh clues to puzzles in the history of nature. Iyad Zalmout Jordanian postdoc and graduate student Ryan Bebej digging whales snout sticking out of the side of a cliff. "We think the rest of the body is inside," said Zalmout.
The ancestors of whales and all other land animals are tetrapods flatheaded, shaped like a salamander who dragged himself out of the sea to the muddy shore about 360 million years ago. In the offspring, a primitive lung gradually improve function, wattle fins turned into feet, and jaw joints are arranged to be able to hear in the air, not in the water. Mammals then became one of the most successful land lovers; at 60 million years ago mammals have dominated the Earth. Pope of the few mammals that evolved back into the sea, remodel their terrestrial body plan can sense, eat, move, and mating in the water.

How to whales accomplished an enormous transformation has baffled scientists as the most genius though. Realizing that the puzzle is one of the major challenges for his theory of evolution by natural selection, Charles Darwin tried to explain the puzzle of whales in the first edition of the Origin of Species. He noted that a black bear had been seen swimming in the lake surface with mouth open for hours, feeding on floating insects. "I see no difficulty in a race of bears being rendered, by natural selection, so that the structure and habits more in accordance with the water of life, with larger and larger mouths," Darwin concluded, "till a creature of the pope." However, the critics ridicule the description aloud and amused, and eventually omitted it from later editions of the book that follows.
Nearly a century later, a leading paleontologist at the 20th century George Gaylord Simpson was also confused in determining the exact location for the pope in an orderly evolutionary tree of mammals. "Overall, cetaceans are mammals of the most bizarre and deviant," remarked peevishly. "There is no proper place for them in the scala naturae. As if they move away to a different dimension with orders or similar to it. "
As for the Saxon antievolusi argue, if science can not explain the transformation of whales, probably because the transformation does not ever happen. They found that land animals began to adapt to aquatic life will soon be half-animal, unable to survive in the water or land. And if the pope really never made this huge transition, where the fossil evidence? "The anatomical differences between whales and land mammals are so great, so of course there are many steps between where creatures have paddled and swam in ancient seas before a whale as we know it appears," wrote the authors of Of Pandas and People, a popular creationist textbooks first published in 1989. "So far this has not been found peralahan form."
Without Philip Gingerich accepted the challenge in the mid-1970s. After earning his Ph.D. at Yale, he began excavating in the Clarks Fork River Basin in Wyoming to document the rise of mammals at the beginning of the Eocene, after the extinction of the dinosaurs ten million a year earlier. In 1975 with the hope to track the migration of mammals from Asia to North America, started fieldwork in middle Eocene formations in the province of Punjab and North-West Frontier (now called Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province) of Pakistan. He was disappointed to find that the 50 million year old sediments targeted were not dry land but the seabed from the eastern edge of the Tethys Ocean. When his team uncovered some pelvic bones in 1977, they jokingly call it "walking whale" -the idea that does not make sense. At that time the most famous fossil whales were considered similar to modern whales, with sophisticated mechanisms for underwater hearing, powerful tails with fin width, and without back legs out of the body.
Then in 1979, a member of Gingerich's team in Pakistan found the skull of a wolf's skull, but have similar bone prominent-and very unwolflike-on the top and sides to support the neck and jaw muscles are strong. Stranger still, the braincase was little bigger than a walnut. Later in the same month, Gingerich found some ancient whale specimens in museums in Lucknow and Kolkata, India. "That's when the tiny braincase started to make sense, because early whales have a large skull and the brain is relatively small," said Gingerich remembers. "I'm beginning to think that this small-brained animals might whales very early."
When Gingerich freed the skull from its matrix of hard red stone in his laboratory at Michigan, he found a clump of dense bone at the base of grape called the auditory bulla, with the peak of the S-shaped bone called the sigmoid process-two anatomical features characteristic of whales and help them hear the water. However, the skull lacked several other adaptations that whales use to hear directionally beneath the waves. He concluded that the animal may semiaquatic, spending significant time in shallow waters, but back ashore to rest and breed.
enemuan whales along the most primitive known-Gingerich named Pakicetus, make Gingerich see whales in a new way. "I'm getting more and more thinking about the huge environmental transition that whales," he recalled. "This creature begins as terrestrial animals and turn into aquatic animals. Since then, I was immersed in the search for a variety of transitional forms in this huge leap from land back into the sea. I want to find all of them. "
In the 1980s Gingerich turned his attention to Wadi Hitan. Together with his wife B. Holly Smith, paleontologists and their colleagues from Michigan, William Sanders, he began to look for whales in the formation of fossils dating back some 10 million years younger than the ocean floor where he found Pakicetus. The trio excavated partial skeletons of fully aquatic whales like basilosaurids and Dorudon smaller, five meters in length. These had a great auditory bullae and other adaptations for underwater hearing; long, streamlined bodies with a long spine; muscular tails to propel them through the water with a strong vertical swing. The area was filled with the skulls of both types of whales. "After being in Wadi Hitan short time, people would feel seeing whales everywhere," said Smith. "And shortly thereafter, one realizes that it is the way it is. We immediately understand that we may not be able to collect all of them, so we started mapping and just dig specimens of the most promising. "
However, only in 1989 the team found the chain that they are looking to connect whales to terrestrial ancestors, discovery, almost by accident. Towards the end of the expedition, Gingerich was working basilosaurids framework when finding the whale knee first known-on feet, located on the animal's backbone at positions far more down than he had expected. Now that the researchers already knew the location of the foot, they revisited a number of popes who have "mapped" and soon found the femur, tibia, and fibula, and a lump of bone that forms the foot and ankle whales. On the last day of the expedition, Smith found a complete set of toes slender, 2.5 centimeters. Seeing the small bones make tears tears. "Knowing that aquatic animals are so big it still has legs, feet, and toes that function, realized what this meant for the evolution of the whale-it's incredible," he recalled.
Though not able to support the weight of the body on the ground basilosaurids, the feet are still no function. They had attachments for powerful muscles, also has a functional ankle joints and complex locking mechanism in the knee. Gingerich speculates that act as stimulants or guides during copulation. "It must be difficult to control what happens on the bottom, on the long, snakelike body that, so far from the brain," he said.
Whatever the usefulness of its little legs basilosaurids, discovery confirms that the ancestors of whales once walked, trotted, and ran on land. However, the ancestral identity remains unclear. Some features of an ancient whale skeleton, especially the cheek teeth are large and triangular looks very similar to those of mesonychids, a group of hoofed Eocene carnivores. (Andrewsarchus great and like hyenas, which is probably the largest carnivorous mammal that ever lived on land, may mesonychid.) In the late 1950s immunologists find traits in whale blood implying that whales descended from artiodactyls, the mammalian order which includes pigs, deer, camels, and other even-toed ungulates. In the 1990s, molecular biologists who study cetacean genetic code concluded that the closest living relative to whales is one specific ungulate, the hippopotamus.

Gingerich and many other paleontologists more confident on the real evidence in the bone than the molecular comparisons of modern species. They believe the pope is mesonychids descent. But to test the theory, Gingerich needed to find a particular bone. Anklebone or astragalus is the most distinctive element of the artiodactyl skeleton, because the double-pulley shape unusual with clear lines at the top and bottom of the spine, such as the strain on the pulley wheel that holds the rope. The shape gives artiodactyls spring and greater flexibility than the single-pulley form found in other quadrupeds (modern pope certainly did not help because it did not have the ankle bone).
Returned to Pakistan in 2000, Gingerich finally saw ankle whales for the first time. His graduate student Iyad Zalmout find a fluted bone amid the remains of a whale that lived 47 million years newly discovered, later named Artiocetus. A few minutes later Pakistani geologist Munir ul-Haq found a similar bone at the same site. At first Gingerich thought the two bones were the single pulley astragalus of right and left foot whale-proof that he was right about the origin of whales. But when he held them side by side, he was confused because the slightly asymmetrical. As he pondered this, twirling the two bones are like a puzzler maneuvers two pieces of the puzzle are problematic, suddenly two bones were attached together to form a perfect double-pulley astragalus. The lab scientists is true.
While walking back to the camp that evening, Gingerich and his team passed a group of village children playing dice with goat astragalus. (Already thousands of years people in different cultures use ankle bone domestic artiodactyls in the game and divination.) Zalmout borrow one and give it to Gingerich, then watched in amusement as his professor spent the rest of the night staring at the whale ankle in one hand and goat ankle on the other hand, noting the resemblance is undeniable. "It was a great discovery, but it upset my applecart," Gingerich said with a wry smile. "However, now we know for sure where the origin of whales and hippos that theory is not science fiction."
Since then Gingerich and a number of other paleontologists complete story of the early popes, tooth by tooth, toe by toe. Gingerich believes the first cetaceans may be similar anthracotheres, sleek browser animals like hippos who inhabit swampy lowlands in Eocene. (An alternative theory proposed by paleontologist Hans Thewissen, that whales descended from animals that are similar to Indohyus, which is similar to prehistoric artiodactyls deer, raccoon that for some of the water.) Whatever the shape and size, the earliest whales appeared about 55 million years ago, like all other modern orders of mammals, over a temperature spike at the beginning of the Eocene world. Various mammals that live along the east coast of the Tethys Ocean, where the waters have a strong appeal evolution: warm, salty, rich marine life, free from water dinosaurs extinct ten million years earlier. By entering into deeper waters to catch various types of new food sources, the initial perandai is slowly growing with a longer snout and sharp teeth that are more suitable for grabbing fish. In 50 million years ago, they have reached a stage that is exemplified by Pakicetus: proficient swimmer quadrupedal, which still roam the land.
By adapting to water, early whales gained access to environments beyond the reach of most other mammals, rich in food and shelter, as well as fewer competitors and predators-perfect conditions for evolutionary explosion. What followed was a strange explosion experiments to be pope, which mostly ended in extinction long before modern times. There is a giant Ambulocetus weighing 725 pounds, with short legs ambush hunters and jaw glutton-like giant saltwater crocodile hairy; Dalanistes, with a long neck and a head like a heron; and Makaracetus the short trunked, curved, and muscular, which may be used to eat mollusks.
About 45 million years ago, the water environment drew whales farther out to sea, becomes clogged and stiff neck to be pushed in the water more efficiently, while the elongated face and sharpened like a bow. The hind legs thickened into a piston; toes stretched and membranes that resemble a giant duck leg with the tip of tiny hooves inherited from ancestors legged animals. Swimming methods improved: The tail is thick and strong growing Some whales shot forward with body movements heave up and down with great force. Selection pressure for efficient force is more suitable for longer backbone and flexible. Nose slid back toward the muzzle crown of the head, into the blowhole. Over time, as the animals dive deeper, their eyes began to move from the top to the side of the head in order to better see the water laterally. Whale ears also become more sensitive to underwater sound, aided by the fat pads that flows along the jaw line, in order to collect vibration like an underwater antenna and channel them to the middle ear.
Although it is in conformity with water, 45 million-year-old pope was still to be shuffled to the beach with webbed fingers and toes, looking for fresh water to drink, to mate, or a safe place to give birth. However, within a few million years, the pope can not turn around again: basilosaurids, Dorudon, and his relatives had never set foot on land, swimming confidently on the high seas and even crossed the Atlantic Ocean to the shores of what is now Peru and the United States south . Animals body was already fully adapted to aquatic lifestyle, front leg shortening and stiffening to become fins to glide, tails broadening at the tip horizontal flukes to create a hydrofoil. Pelvic integral with the spine, so that the tail has a range of vertical movement wider. However, like a talisman of terrestrial life long forgotten, there remains hind legs, complete with knee, foot, ankle, and the fingers are all small, which is no longer useful to run but may be beneficial for mating.
The final transition from basilosaurids to modern whales began 34 million years ago, the sudden cold climate phase, which ended the Eocene. Drop in water temperatures near the Poles, shifting ocean currents and upwelling of nutrient-rich sea water along the west coast of Africa and Europe drew whales into environmental niches completely new and adaptation spur-big brains, echolocation, fat blockers, and in some species, bone filters instead of teeth to stretch krill-exist in today's cetaceans.
Especially thanks to Philip Gingerich, the fossil record of whales now offers one of the show's most amazing Darwinian evolution, not against it. Ironically, Gingerich himself grew up in a strictly principled Christian environment, the Amish Mennonite family in eastern Iowa. (Grandfather farmer and lay preacher.) However, at that time, he did not feel that religion and science contradict. "My grandfather open-minded about the age of the earth," he said, "and never mentioned evolution. Remember, these people are very humble, just express an opinion about the things they are good at. "
Gingerich was surprised that many people still feel that religion and science contradict. On my last night in Wadi Hitan, we walked a bit away from the camp under the dome of a brilliant star. "Maybe I've never been particularly religious," he said. "But I consider my work to be very spiritual. Imagine whales swim around it, how they live and die, how the world has this berubahsemua makes me feel touched something much bigger than yourself, your community, or your everyday existence. "He spread his arms, taking horizon dark and desert sand and wind carved sandstone and whales countless silent. "Here there is no place for religion as much as you want."